Islam

[الغريب]

The Seljuk Turks conquered Abbassid lands and adopted Islam and become the de facto rulers of the caliphate. They captured Anatolia by defeating the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert, thereby precipitating the call for Crusades. They however fell apart rapidly in the second half of the 12th century giving rise to various semi-autonomous Turkic dynasties. In the 13th and 14th centuries the Ottoman empire (named after Osman I) emerged from among these "Ghazi emirates" and established itself after a string of conquests that included the Balkans, parts of Greece, and western Anatolia. In 1453 under Mehmed II the Ottomans laid siege to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium, which succumbed shortly thereafter, having been overwhelmed by a far greater number of Ottoman troops and to a lesser extent, cannonry.[84]

Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of al-Ghazzali to legitimize and reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students.[85] Also of importance to Sufism was the creation of the Masnavi, a collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century Persian poet Rumi. The Masnavi had a profound influence on the development of Sufi religious thought; to many Sufis it is second in importance only to the Qur'an.[86]


The Taj Mahal is a mausoleum located in Agra, India, that was built under Mughal rule[87]In the early 16th century, the Shi'i Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia and established Shi'a Islam as an official religion there, and despite periodic setbacks, the Safavids remained powerful for two centuries. Meanwhile, Mamluk Egypt fell to the Ottomans in 1517, who then launched a European campaign which reached as far as the gates of Vienna in 1529.[88] After the invasion of Persia, and sack of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258, Delhi became the most important cultural centre of the Muslim east.[89] Many Islamic dynasties ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent starting from the 12th century. The prominent ones include the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and the Mughal empire (1526–1857). These empires helped in the spread of Islam in South Asia, but by the early-18th century the Maratha empire became the pre-eminent power in the north of India. By the mid-18th century the British empire had formally ended the Mughal dynasty,[90], and at the end of the 18th century overthrew the Muslim-ruled Kingdom of Mysore. In the 18th century the Wahhabi movement took hold in Saudi Arabia. Founded by the preacher Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic.[91]

By the 17th and 18th centuries, despite attempts at modernization, the Ottoman empire had begun to feel threatened by European economic and military advantages. In the 19th century, the rise of nationalism resulted in Greece declaring and winning independence in 1829, with several Balkan states following suit after the Ottomans suffered defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. The Ottoman era came to a close at the end of World War I.[92]

In the 19th century, the Salafi, Deobandi and Barelwi movements were initiated.


Modern times (1918–present)
Further information: Fall of the Ottoman Empire, Arab Revolt, Arab-Israeli conflict, and Iranian revolution
After World War I losses, the remnants of the empire were parceled out as European protectorates or spheres of influence. Since then most Muslim societies have become independent nations, and new issues such as oil wealth and relations with the State of Israel have assumed prominence.[93]

The 20th century saw the creation of many new Islamic "revivalist" movements. Groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and Jamaat-e-Islami in Pakistan advocate a totalistic and theocratic alternative to secular political ideologies. Sometimes called Islamist, they see Western cultural values as a threat, and promote Islam as a comprehensive solution to every public and private question of importance. In countries like Iran and Afghanistan (under the Taliban), revolutionary movements replaced secular regimes with Islamist states, while transnational groups like Osama bin Laden's al-Qaeda engage in terrorism to further their goals. In contrast, Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".[94]

Modern critique of Islam includes accusations that Islam is intolerant of criticism and that Islamic law is too hard on apostates. Critics like Ibn Warraq question the morality of the Qu'ran, saying that its *******s justify the mistreatment of women and encourage antisemitic remarks by Muslim theologians.[95] Such claims are disputed by Muslim writers like Fazlur Rahman,[96] Syed Ameer Ali,[97] Ahmed Deedat,[98] and Yusuf Estes.[99] Others like Daniel Pipes and Martin Kramer focus more on criticizing the spread of Islamic fundamentalism, a danger they feel has been ignored.[100] Montgomery Watt and Norman Daniel dismiss many of the criticisms as the product of old myths and polemics.[101] The rise of Islamophobia, according to Carl Ernst, had contributed to the negative views about Islam and Muslims in the West.[102]

[الغريب]

Commonly cited estimates of the Muslim population in 2007 range from 1 billion to 1.8 billion. Approximately 85% are Sunni and 15% are Shi'a, with a small minority belonging to other sects. Some 30–40 countries are Muslim-majority, and Arabs account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide. South Asia and Southeast Asia contain the most populous Muslim countries, with Indonesia, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh having more than 100 million adherents each.[103] According to U.S. government figures, in 2006 there were 20 million Muslims in China.[104] In the Middle East, the non-Arab countries of Turkey and Iran are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in Africa, Egypt and Nigeria have the most populous Muslim communities.[103] Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries.[105]


Mosques
Main article: Mosque

Eid prayers on the holiday of Eid al-Fitr at the Badshahi Mosque, Pakistan. The days of Eid are important occasions on the Islamic calendar.A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, masjid. The word mosque in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (masjid jāmi`). Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as minarets.[106]


Family life
See also: Women and Islam
The basic unit of Islamic society is the family, and Islam defines the obligations and legal rights of family members. The father is seen as financially responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The division of inheritance is specified in the Qur'an, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. The woman's share of inheritance is generally half of that of a man with the same rights of succession.[107] Marriage in Islam is a civil contract which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.[108]


Canterbury Mosque, New Zealand; June 2006. Built over 1984-85 it was the world's southern-most mosque until 1999.A man may have up to four wives if he believes he can treat them equally, while a woman may have only one husband. In most Muslim countries, the process of divorce in Islam is known as talaq, which the husband initiates by pronouncing the word "divorce".[109] Scholars disagree whether Islamic holy texts justify traditional Islamic practices such as veiling and seclusion (purdah). Starting in the 20th century, Muslim social reformers argued against these and other practices such as polygamy, with varying success. At the same time, many Muslim women have attempted to reconcile tradition with modernity by combining an active life with outward modesty. Certain Islamist groups like the Taliban have sought to continue traditional law as applied to women.[110]


Calendar
Main article: Islamic calendar
The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the Hijra in 622 CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. The assignment of this year as the year 1 AH (Anno Hegirae) in the Islamic calendar was reportedly made by Caliph Umar. It is a lunar calendar, with nineteen ordinary years of 354 days and eleven leap years of 355 days in a thirty-year cycle. Islamic dates cannot be converted to CE/AD dates simply by adding 622 years: allowance must also be made for the fact that each Hijri century corresponds to only 97 years in the Christian calendar.[111]

The year 1428 AH coincides almost completely with 2007 CE.

Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (Arabic: عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.[112]

[الغريب]

According to Islamic doctrine, Islam was the primordial religion of mankind, professed by Adam.[113] At some point, a religious split occurred, and God began sending prophets to bring his revelations to the people.[114] In this view, Abraham, Moses, Hebrew prophets, and Jesus were all Prophets in Islam, but their message and the texts of the Torah and the Gospels were corrupted by Jews and Christians. Similarly, children of non-Muslim families are born Muslims, but are converted to another faith by their parents.[115] The idea of Islamic supremacy is encapsulated in the formula "Islam is exalted and nothing is exalted above it."[116] Pursuant to this principle, Muslim women may not marry non-Muslim men, defamation of Islam is prohibited, and the testimony of a non-Muslim is inadmissible against a Muslim.[117]

Islamic law divides non-Muslims into several categories, depending on their relation with the Islamic state. Christians and Jews who live under Islamic rule are known as dhimmis ("protected peoples"). According to this pact, the personal safety and security of property of the dhimmis were guaranteed in return for paying tribute (jizya) to the Islamic state and acknowledging Muslim supremacy. Historically, dhimmis enjoyed a measure of communal autonomy under their own religious leaders, but were subject to legal, social and religious restrictions meant to highlight their inferiority.[118] The status was extended to other groups like Zoroastrians and Hindus[119], but not to atheists or agnostics.[120] Those who live in non-Muslim lands (dar al-harb) are known as harbis, and upon entering into an alliance with the Muslim state become known as ahl al-ahd. Those who receive a guarantee of safety while residing temporarily in Muslim lands are known as ahl al-amān. Their legal position is similar to that of the dhimmi except that they are not required to pay the jizya. The people of armistice (ahl al-hudna) are those who live outside of Muslim territory and agree to refrain from attacking the Muslims.[121][122] Apostasy is prohibited, and is punishable by death.[123][124]

The Alevi, Yazidi, Druze, Ahmadiyya, Bábí, Bahá'í, Berghouata and Ha-Mim movements either emerged out of Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam. Some consider themselves separate while others still sects of Islam though controversial in certain beliefs with mainstream Muslims. Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak in late fifteenth century Punjab, incorporates aspects of both Islam and Hinduism.[125]


Denominations
Main article: Divisions of Islam
Islam consists of a number of religious denominations that are essentially similar in belief but which have significant theological and legal differences. The primary division is between the Sunni and the Shi'a, with Sufism generally considered to be a mystical inflection of Islam rather than a distinct school. According to most sources, approximately 85% of the world's Muslims are Sunni and approximately 15% are Shi'a, with a small minority who are members of other Islamic sects.[126]


Sunni
Main article: Sunni

Divisions of IslamSunni Muslims are the largest group in Islam. In Arabic, as-Sunnah literally means "principle" or "path". The Sunnah (the example of Muhammad's life) as recorded in the Qur'an and the hadith is the main pillar of Sunni doctrine. Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him, those leaders had to be elected. Sunnis recognize four major legal traditions, or madhhabs: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim might choose any one that he or she finds agreeable, but other Islamic sects are believed to have departed from the majority by introducing innovations (bidah). There are also several orthodox theological or philosophical traditions within Sunnism. For example, the recent Salafi movement sees itself as restorationist and claims to derive its teachings from the original sources of Islam.[127]


Shi'a
Main article: Shi'a
See also: Succession to Muhammad
The Shi'a, who constitute the second-largest branch of Islam, believe in the political and religious leadership of infallible Imams from the progeny of Ali ibn Abi Talib. They believe that he, as the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was his rightful successor, and they call him the first Imam (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs. To them, an Imam rules by right of divine appointment and holds "absolute spiritual authority" among Muslims, having final say in matters of doctrine and revelation.[128][129] Although the Shi'a share many core practices with the Sunni, the two branches disagree over the proper importance and validity of specific collections of hadith. The Shi'a follow a legal tradition called Ja'fari jurisprudence.[130] Shi'a Islam has several branches, the largest of which is the Twelvers (iṯnāʿašariyya), while the others are the Ismaili, the Seveners, and the Zaidiyyah.[131]


Sufism
Main article: Sufism
Not strictly a denomination, Sufism is a mystical-ascetic form of Islam. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.[132] Sufism and Islamic law are usually considered to be complementary, although Sufism has been criticized by some Muslims for being an unjustified religious innovation. Most Sufi orders, or tariqas, can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a.[133]


Others
The Kharijites are a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam. The only surviving branch of the Kharijites is Ibadism. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. The Imamate is an important topic in Ibadi legal literature, which stipulates that the leader should be chosen solely on the basis of his knowledge and piety, and is to be deposed if he acts unjustly. Most Ibadi Muslims live in Oman.[134]


See also
Islam portal
Further information: List of Islamic and Muslim-related topics
Islamic Peace
Islamic art
Islamic economics
Islamic ethics
Islamic literature
Islamic studies
Islam and modernity
Islamism
Islamization
Mohammedanism
List of Muslims
List of Muslim empires
List of notable converts to Islam
List of notable former Muslims
List of wars in the Muslim world
Timeline of Islamic history
Animal welfare in Islam
Children's rights in Islam
Prisoners rights in Islam
Persecution of Muslims
Prophets of Islam



Notes
^ USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts
^ a b L. Gardet; J. Jomier "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
^ "Lane's lexicon". Retrieved on 2007-07-03.
^ "Major Religions of the World—Ranked by Number of Adherents" (HTML). Retrieved on 2007-07-03.
^ See:
Esposito (1996), p.41
Ghamidi (2001): Sources of Islam
^ a b See:
Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it.
Esposito (1998), pp.6,12
Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5
F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
F. Buhl; A. T. Welch "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
Hava Lazarus-Yafeh "Tahrif". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
^ Esposito (2002b), p.17
^ See:
Esposito (2002b), pp.111,112,118
"Shari'ah". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
^ See:
Esposito (2002b), p.21
Esposito (2004), pp.2,43
^ See these figures
^ Qur'an 6:125, Qur'an 61:7, Qur'an 39:22
^ Qur'an 5:3, Qur'an 3:19, Qur'an 3:83
^ See: Qur'an 9:74, Qur'an 49:14
L. Gardet; J. Jomier "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
^ Qur'an 2:4, Qur'an 2:285, Qur'an 4:136
^ Sahih Muslim 1:1
^ See:
Farah (2003), p.109
Momen (1987), p.176
^ Esposito (2004), pp.17,18,21
^ See:
Momem (1987), p.176
"Islam". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-20.
^ Qur'an 30:30
^ See: Qur'an 22:78
"Islam", Encyclopedia of Religion
^ "Islam", Encyclopedia of Religion
^ See:
"Islam and Christianity", Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God as Allāh.
L. Gardet "Allah". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
^ David Thomas "Tathlith, Trinity". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-11. : Contrary to Muslim understanding, some scholars have suggested that the Qur'an only opposes certain deviant forms of Trinitarian belief.
^ See: Qur'an 112:1-4
Esposito (2002b), pp.74–76
Esposito (2004), p.22
Griffith (2006), p.248
D. Gimaret "Allah, Tawhid". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
^ "Qur'an". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-17.
^ See:
William Montgomery Watt in The Cambridge History of Islam, p.32
Richard Bell, William Montgomery Watt, Introduction to the Qur'an, p.51
F. E. Peters (1991), pp.3–5: "Few have failed to be convinced that … the Quran is … the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."
^ See:
"Islam". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-17.
"Qur'an". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-17.
^ Esposito (2004), p.79
^ See:
Esposito (2004), pp.79–81
"Tafsir". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-17.
^ See:
Teece (2003), pp.12,13
C. Turner (2006), p.42
"Qur'an". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. : The word Qur'an was invented and first used in the Qur'an itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation.
^ Qur'an 21:19-20, Qur'an 35:1
^ See: Qur'an 35:1
Esposito (2002b), pp.26–28
W. Madelung "Malā'ika". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
Gisela Webb "Angel". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
^ See:
Esposito (1998), p.12
Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5
F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
"Muhammad". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-17.
^ See: Qur'an 18:110
F. Buhl; A. T. Welch "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
^ See:
F.E.Peters(2003), pp.78,79,194
Lapidus (2002), pp.23–28
^ F. Buhl; A. T. Welch "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
^ See:
Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p.666
J. Robson "Hadith". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
D. W. Brown "Sunna". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
^ See:
"Resurrection", The New Encyclopedia of Islam (2003)
"Avicenna". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. : Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as "Avicenna".
L. Gardet "Qiyama". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
^ Qur'an 9:72
^ See:
Smith (2006), p.89; Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World, p.565
"Heaven", The Columbia Encyclopedia (2000)
Asma Afsaruddin "Garden". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-08.
"Paradise". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
^ See: Qur'an 9:51
D. Cohen-Mor (2001), p.4: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen: 'Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us…" ' "
Ahmet T. Karamustafa "Fate". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. : The verb qadara literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".
^ See:
Farah (2003), pp.119–122
Patton (1900), p.130
^ Momen (1987), pp.177,178
^ See:
Momem (1987), p.178
"Pillars of Islam". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
^ See:
Farah (1994), p.135
Momen (1987), p.178
"Islam", Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals(2004)
^ See:
Esposito (2002b), pp.18,19
Hedáyetullah (2006), pp.53–55
Kobeisy (2004), pp.22–34
Momen (1987), p.178
^ See: Qur'an 2:177
Esposito (2004), p.90
Momen (1987), p.179
"Zakat". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-11.
"Zakat". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
^ See: Qur'an 2:184
Esposito (2004), pp.90,91
"Islam". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
"For whom fasting is mandatory". Compendium of Muslim Texts. USC-MSA. Retrieved on 2007-04-18.
^ See:
Farah (1994), pp.145–147
Goldschmidt (2005), p.48
"Hajj". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
^ Momen (1987), p.180
^ "Shari'ah". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
^ See:
Menski (2006), p.290
B. Carra de Vaux; J. Schacht, A.M. Goichon "Hadd". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
N. Calder; M. B. Hooker "Sharia". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
^ Weiss (2002), pp.xvii,162
^ See:
Esposito (2004), p.84
Lapidus (2002), pp.502–507,845
Lewis (2003), p.100
^ See: Qur'an 5:5
Curtis (2005), p.164
Esposito (2002b), p.111
Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws
Ghamidi (2001): The Dietary Laws
Ghamidi (2001): Various types of the prayer
Ersilia Francesca "Slaughter". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-08.
^ Esposito (2003), p.93
^ Firestone (1999) pp. 17-18
^ Reuven Firestone (1999), The Meaning of Jihād, p. 17-18
^ Britannica Encyclopedia, Jihad
^ See:
Brockopp (2003) pp. 99–100
Esposito (2003), p.93
"jihad". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-06-13.

[الغريب]

Firestone (1999) p.17
"Djihad", Encyclopedia of Islam Online.
^ Firestone (1999) p.17
^ a b "Djihād". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
^ Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror, Mary R. Habeck, Yale University Press, p.108-109, 118
^ cf. Sachedina (1998) p. 105 and 106
Seibert (1994), pp.88–89
Watt (1974), p.231
^ Ernst (2004), p.11
^ a b "Number of Muslim by country". nationmaster.com. Retrieved on 2007-05-30.
^ "International Religious Freedom Report 2006—China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)". U.S. department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (2006). Retrieved on 2007-05-30.
^ See:
Esposito (2004) pp.2,43
"Islamic World". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
"Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents". Adherents.com. Retrieved on 2007-01-09.
"Muslims in Europe: Country guide". BBC News. BBC (2005-12-23). Retrieved on 2006-09-28.
"Religion In Britain". National Statistics. Office for National Statistics (2003-02-13). Retrieved on 2006-08-27.
^ See:
J. Pedersen; R. Hillenbrand, J. Burton-Page, et al. "Masdjid". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
"Mosque". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
^ "al-Mar'a". Encyclopaedia of Islam
^
Waines (2003) pp. 93–96
The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p.339
Esposito (1998) p. 79
^ *"Talak". Encyclopaedia of Islam
^
Esposito (2004), pp.95,96,235–241
Harald Motzki "Marriage and Divorce". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an. Retrieved on 2007-05-15.
Lori Peek "Marriage Practices". Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures. Retrieved on 2007-05-15.
^ See:
Adil (2002), p.288
F. E. Peters (2003), p.67
B. van Dalen; R. S. Humphreys, Manuela Marín, et al. "Tarikh̲". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
^ Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws
^ Friedmann (2003), pp. 14–16
^ Friedmann (2003), pp. 18–19
^ Friedmann (2003), p. 18
^ Friedmann (2003), p. 35
^ See:
Friedmann (2003), p. 35;
Lewis (1984), p. 39
^ See:
Lewis (1984), pp.9, 27, 36;
Friedmann (2003), p. 37;
^ Ernst (2005), Following Muhammad, p.46
^ Lewis (2001), p.273
^ Friedmann (2003), p. 55
^ "Aman", Encyclopaedia of Islam
^ A woman who apostasizes is to be executed according to some jurists, or imprisoned according to others.
^ "Murtadd", Encyclopedia of Islam
^ Encyclopedia of Islam, "Sikhs"
^ See:
Esposito (2002b), p.2
"Sunni and Shia Islam". Country Studies. U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved on 2007-01-09.
^ See:
Esposito (2003), pp.275,306
"Shariah". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
"Sunnite". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
^ See
Lapidus (2002), p.46
"Imam". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
"Shi'ite". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.
^ Imamat, by Naser Makarem Shirazi
^ See:
Ahmed (1999), pp.44–45
Nasr (1994), p.466
^ See:
Kramer (1987), Syria's Alawis and Shi'ism pp.237–254
Shia branches
^ Trimingham (1998), p.1
^ See:
Esposito (2003), p.302
Malik (2006), p.3
B. S. Turner (1998), p.145
"Afghanistan: A Country Study". Country Studies 150. U. S. Library of Congress (Federal Research Division). Retrieved on 2007-04-18.
^ See:
IBADI ISLAM: AN INTRODUCTION
J. A. Williams (1994), p.173
"al-Ibāḍiyya". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.

References
Books and journals
Accad, Martin (2003). "The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I)". Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 14 (1). ISSN 0959-6410.
Adil, Hajjah Amina; Shaykh Nazim Adil Al-Haqqani, Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani (2002). Muhammad: The Messenger of Islam. Islamic Supreme Council of America. ISBN 978-1930409118.
Ahmed, Akbar (1999). Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World, 2.00, I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1860642579.
Brockopp, Jonathan E. (2003). Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia. University of South Carolina press. ISBN 1570034710.
Cohen-Mor, Dalya (2001). A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195133986.
Curtis, Patricia A. (2005). A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations. Blackwell Publishing Professional. ISBN 978-0813819464.
Eglash, Ron (1999). African Fractals: Modern Computing and Indigenous Design. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-2614-0.
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Further reading
Arberry, A. J. (1996). The Koran Interpreted: A Translation, 1st, Touchstone. ISBN 978-0684825076.
Hawting, Gerald R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyard Caliphate AD 661–750. Routledge. ISBN 0415240727.
Khan, Muhammad Muhsin; Al-Hilali Khan, Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din (1999). Noble Quran, 1st, Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-9960740799.
Kramer (ed.), Martin (1999). The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis. Syracuse University. ISBN 978-9652240408.
Kuban, Dogan (1974). Muslim Religious Architecture. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 9004038132.
Lewis, Bernard (1993). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East. Open Court. ISBN 978-0812692174.
Lewis, Bernard (1994). Islam and the West. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195090611.
Lewis, Bernard (1996). Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195102833.
Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman (2002). The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1591440710.
Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2001). History of Islam. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1591440345.
Nigosian, S. A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices, New Edition, Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0253216274.
Rahman, Fazlur (1979). Islam, 2nd, University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-70281-2.
Walker, Benjamin (1998). Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith. Peter Owen Publishers. ISBN 978-0720610383.

External links
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University of Southern California Compendium of Muslim Texts
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Three Translations of The Koran (Al-Qur'an) side by side
Kur'an audio (recordings of many Qur'an recitals - easy to stream and play)
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Qur'an audio and reading material in numerous languages
Islam and the arts
BBC Islam Focus
Islamic Art at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art
Muslim Heritage (Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation, UK)
Islamic Architecture (IAORG) illustrated de******ions and reviews of a large number of mosques, palaces, and monuments.

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