english grammar

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	Sentence Fragments (Incomplete Sentences) 1. A sentence must have a subject and a verb if it is to make sense Incorrect: John, being a friendly computer salesman and ****ball fan. (No verb) Correct: John, being a friendly computer salesman and ****ball fan, refused to argue. (John--the subject--is doing something, namely, refusing.) 2. A subordinate clause (also sometimes called a dependent clause) is not a complete sentence if it does not have a main clause even though it may have a subject and verb. Incorrect: Because we are ****ball fans. Correct: We watched the All-Star Game because we are ****ball fans. There is nothing wrong with beginning a sentence with the word because as long as the clause with because is followed by a main clause. Correct: Because we are ****ball fans, we watched the All-Star Game. 3. Sometimes in conversation only sentence fragments make sense. OK, if you are recording a conversation, otherwise incorrect: She asked, "Why did you watch that ****ball game?" "Because we are ****ball fans." Using Negatives There are a few rules to keep in mind when making a sentence say "No." 1. Double negatives are nonstandard. Avoid two negative words in the same clause. Incorrect: I don't want no seconds. (Both don't and no are negatives.) Correct: I don't want any seconds. Correct: I want no seconds. This rule does not include negative interjections at the beginning of a sentence or clause, since those are grammatically separate. Correct: No, I don't want any seconds. 2. Do not use but in a negative sense with another negative. Incorrect: He didn't want but one good manu******. Correct: He wanted but one good manu******. Correct: He wanted only one good manu******. 3. Words like barely, hardly, and scarcely have a negative sense and should not be used with another negative. In effect, this creates a double negative. Incorrect: He couldn't hardly speak. Correct: He could hardly speak. Incorrect: We were not barely able to see the stage. Correct: We were barely able to see the stage. There are four groups of words w Tricky Plurals hich some speakers and writers have difficulty with. In each case it has to do with the agreement of plurals or plural-looking words with the verbs or other words they go with. Plural-looking Nouns Some nouns that end in -s look like they are plural, but they really are singular. This is particularly true of branches of knowledge, certain foods or dishes, and certain diseases. Branches of knowledge like mathematics, physics, ethics, politics, or social studies are singular. Names of foods, while plural, are treated singularly when they are treated as a single dish. Some diseases, while plural in origin, are treated singularly because just one disease is discussed: measles, mumps, rickets, or pox. Examples: Politics is a rough life. Baked beans is one of my favorite dishes. Mumps has been nearly eradicated in the U.S. A few words, though singular in nature, are made of paired items and generally treated as plural: scissors, pants, trousers, glasses, pliers, tongs, tweezers, and the like. Many are often used with the word pair as in pair of pants or pair of scissors Example: These scissors are too dull to cut with.

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	بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم ,,,, _______________________ تكملة الموضوع >>>> Nouns Expressing Measurement A noun expressing an amount or measurement is normally singular. If the unit of measurement refers to a number of individual items, then it treated as a plural Examples : Two spoons of sugar is too much for me. (A single measurement) Twelve dollars is less than what I want to sell it for. (A single sum of money) Four-fifths of the country is satisfied with its health insurance. (One part of a whole) Four-fifths of the people are satisfied with their health insurance. (Four-fifths refers to many individuals.) Titles Titles of books and other works of art are always considered singular even if the title sounds plural. The Alfred Hitchcock film The Birds was successfully advertised with a campaign that said, "The Birds is coming!" Unlike so many ads, that one was grammatically correct. Plurals That Do Not End in -s A number of plurals, mostly derived from Latin, do not end in -s. Nevertheless, they are plural and should be treated as such. Words such as criteria, phenomena, memoranda, and media are plural. Their singular forms are criterion, phenomenon, memorandum, and medium. The word data is also technically plural, but the singular form, datum, is rare in English, so using data as singular is tolerated, but not precisely correct. Say "a piece of data" or "item of data" for the singular if datum sounds too affected. See also "Alumni" and other listings in Spelling Slammer

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	بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم ,,,, ___________________ تكملة الموضوع >>> Subject Agreement with the Verb It is usually pretty easy to match the verb with the subject in English. Only in the present tense does the verb have more than one form. And except for one verb, only the third person singular is different. Besides, the third person singular present tense always ends in an s. We understand this most of the time. Verb: To speak I, you, we, they speak he, she, it speaks Verb: To do I, you, we, they do he, she, it does Verb: To be (the only exception) I am you, we, they are he, she, it is The verb to be is also the only verb with more than one form in the past tense. See also the subjunctive mood. Verb: To be, past I, he, she, it was you, we, they were Normally, none of this is a problem. However, there are a few cases that confuse writers and speakers. Separated Subjects and Verbs A phrase or clause often separates the subject and the verb. The verb must still agree with the subject. Incorrect: The climate in both places are mild. Correct: The climate in both places is mild. (Climate is the subject, not places. It takes the verb is.) Keep track of the subject, especially when there is a singular pronoun or collective noun for the subject and a plural element in the phrase that separates the subject and verb. Collective noun: A group of senators was calling for an investigation. Singular pronoun: One of the many galaxies was proven to be near a black hole. Compound Subjects Two or more singular subjects joined by or or nor take a singular verb. Correct: Neither John nor Mary knows what happened. Two or more plural subjects joined by any conjunction (including and, or, but, or nor) take a plural verb. Correct: Both men and women are allowed to enter. If on ___________________________ للموضوع تكمله >>>>> انتطرو المزيد

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	بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم ,,,, ___________________ If one or more singular subject is joined to one or more plural subject by or or nor, the verb agrees with the subject closest to the verb. Incorrect: Neither Mary nor her brothers knows what happened. (Brothers is closer to the verb and is plural; the verb should agree with brothers). Correct: Neither Mary nor her brothers know what happened. Correct: Neither her brothers nor Mary knows what happened. A compound subject whose parts are joined by and normally takes a plural verb. Correct: Joe and his brother know what happened. A compound subject whose parts are joined by and takes a singular verb in two special instances. 1. When the parts of the subject combine to form a single item. Correct: One and one equals two. Correct: ****ies and cream is my favorite flavor. 2. When the compound subject is modified by the words each or every. Correct: Every boy and girl has to participate. See also British vs. American Grammar, The Verb To Be, and Indefinite Pronouns. Comparison Problems There are five problems writers sometimes have with comparisons. 1. Make sure you are comparing similar items. Incorrect: The tusk of a mastodon is bigger than an elephant. (It sounds as if the writer is comparing the tusk with an elephant.) Correct: The tusk of a mastodon is bigger than the tusk of an elephant. 2. Make sure your comparison is balanced. Use the same pattern on both sides of the comparison to make it readable and clear. Unbalanced: The tusk of a mastodon is bigger than an elephant's. Correct: The tusk of a mastodon is bigger than that of an elephant. (Or "than the tusk of an elephant" ; either choice keeps the pattern of using the prepositional phrase.) Correct: A mastodon's tusk is bigger than an elephant's. (Or "than an elephant's tusk" ; either choice keeps the pattern of using the possessive noun.) 3. When comparing people or items that are grouped together, it may be necessary to use the word other or else to make the meaning clear. Incorrect: The X-15 was faster than any airplane. (The X-15 is an airplane. The sentence makes it sound as though it were some other kind of aircraft.) Correct: The X-15 was faster than any other airplane. Incorrect: Manute was taller than anyone on the team. (This suggests that he either was not on the team or that he is being compared to himself.) Correct: Manute was taller than anyone else on the team. 4. The words major and minor are comparative forms that have lost some of their original usage. However, it is nonstandard to add -ly to them just as it is to add -ly to any comparative adjective or adverb that ends in -er. Incorrect: He was majorly disappointed. Correct: He was greatly disappointed. Correct: He was more greatly disappointed than we thought. 5. Avoid the double comparison. Words that end in -er or -est and certain irregular comparisons do not need to be modified with the words more, most, less, or least since they are already comparative or superlative. Similarly, do not add an -er or -est to an irregular comparison for the same reason. Incorrect: That film was more funnier than the one we saw last week. Correct: That film was funnier than the one we saw last week. Incorrect: She felt worser yesterday. (Worse is already comparative.) Correct: She felt worse yesterday. The word lesser is accepted by most authorities when used as an adjective meaning smaller or less significant. Dangling Modifiers A dangling modifier is a phrase or clause which says something different from what is meant because words are left out. The meaning of the sentence, therefore, is left "dangling." Incorrect: While driving on Greenwood Avenue yesterday afternoon, a tree began to fall toward Wendy H's car. (It sounds like the tree was driving! This actually appeared in a newspaper article. An ***** reader wrote, "Is the Department of Motor Vehicles branching out and issuing licenses to hardwoods? Have they taken leaf of their senses?") Adding a word or two makes the sentence clear. Correct: While Wendy H was driving on Greenwood Avenue yesterday afternoon, a tree began to fall toward her car. When a modifier "dangles" so that the sentence is meaningless (or means something other than your intent), restate it and add the words it needs in order to make sense. Irregular Comparisons A few of the comparatives and superlatives in English do not follow the usual pattern. Here is a list of common exceptions. Positive Comparative Superlative bad worse worst badly worse worst far(distance) farther farthest far(extent) further furthest good better best ill worse worst late later latest or last less lesser least little(amount) less least many more most much more most well better best The comparisons for well apply to both the adjective meaning "healthy" and the adverb meaning "in a good manner." For more on how to use some of these see the Common Mistakes section on good/well and bad/badly. Also see Common Mistakes section for the difference between further and farther and between littlest and least ____________________

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	بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم ,,,,, ______________________ Comparatives and Superlatives Use words ending in -er or modified by the word more to compare two items. This is known as the comparative degree. Use words ending in -est or modified by the word most to compare three or more items. This is known as the superlative degree Correct: K2 is taller than Annapurna. Incorrect: Annapurna is the taller of the three peaks. (Three or more requires superlative.) Correct: Annapurna is the tallest of the three peaks. Normally, -er and -est are added to one-syllable words. -er and -est are added to two-syllable words unless the new word sounds awkward. Correct: fairer prettier handsomest Awkward: famousest readier Correct: most famous more ready Use the modifiers more or most with all root words longer than two syllables as well as with two syllable words that sound awkward. Always use more or most with adverbs that end in -ly. Incorrect: beautifuller smoothliest Correct: more beautiful most smoothly Correct: friendliest beastliest (adjectives, not adverbs) Less and least form comparisons of a lesser degree in a similar manner. Less is used when comparing two items, least with three or more. See also Irregular Comparisons and Comparison Problems. The Subjunctive Mood A verb is in the subjunctive mood when it expresses a condition which is doubtful or not factual . It is most often found in a clause beginning with the word if. It is also found in clauses following a verb that expresses a doubt, a wish, regret, request, demand, or proposal. These are verbs typically followed by clauses that take the subjunctive: ask, demand, determine, insist, move, order, pray, prefer, recommend, regret, request, require, suggest, and wish. In English there is no difference between the subjunctive and normal, or indicative, form of the verb except for the present tense third person singular and for the verb to be. The subjunctive for the present tense third person singular drops the -s or -es so that it looks and sounds like the present tense for everything else. The subjunctive mood of the verb to be is be regardless of what the subject is. Incorrect: If I was you, I would run. Correct: If I were you, I would run. (The verb follows if and expresses a non-factual condition.) Incorrect: I wish he was able to type faster. Correct: I wish he were able to type faster. (The second verb is in a clause following a verb expressing a wish. It also suggests a non-factual or doubtful condition.) Incorrect: His requirement is that everyone is computer literate. Correct: His requirement is that everyone be computer literate. (Subordinate clause follows main clause with a demand.) Incorrect: He recommended that each driver reports his tips. Correct: He recommended that each driver report his tips. Sometimes we may use the conditional auxiliary verbs of could, should, or would to express the same sense. Subjunctive:I wish he were kinder to me. Conditional: I wish he would be kinder to me. Note: In modern English, the subjunctive is only found in subordinate clauses. General Antecedent Agreement The antecedent of a pronoun is the word the pronoun refers to. There are several style problems which writers and speakers sometimes have when they do not match the pronoun and the noun it replaces correctly. Missing or Mismatched Antecedent A pronoun, unless it is an indefinite pronoun, must have an antecedent, a word it refers to. The pronoun must match the word it replaces--singular or plural, and, sometimes, masculine or feminine. Incorrect: Every student must have their pencils. (Both every and student are singular; therefore, his, her, or his or her must be used. Their is plural and cannot refer to a singular noun.) ________________________________